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Thus the Ukrainian Nation fought for and won its independence again after three hundred years of a foreign yoke. Finally, in 1648, the Ukrainian Cossacks, aided by the entire people, from the Dnieper to the San, raised the standard of rebellion, and under the leadership of Bohdan Khmelnyzki, succeeded in annihilating the Polish armies. Thus, the second Ukrainian state, the Cossack Republic, came into existence about the middle of the 17th Century, in a victorious war, to shake off the Polish yoke.
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But the Polish Kingdom was rather deficient, always, as far as its standing army was concerned, and was obliged to appeal to the Ukrainian Cossack organization, which it could not possibly destroy, to aid in its wars against the Turks, the Russians and the Swedes. In these revolts the Cossacks were supported by the oppressed peasantry. An ominous discontent prevailed throughout the Ukraine, and after the Poles had naturally taken severe measures, a number of Cossack revolts occurred in rapid succession, beginning toward the end of the 16th Century and filling the first half of the 17th. The entire Ukrainian nation regarded the Zaporozhian Cossacks as their natural defenders against the terrible Tatar peril, and likewise as their sole hope as opposed to the oppression practiced by the Poles. In the aristocratic state organization of Poland there was no room for such a lawless democratic state as that of the Zaporozhians was in Polish eyes. And when, in time of war, the General Assembly delegated unlimited dictatorial power to the highest official, the Hetman, it gave him a degree of authority with which the power of any one of the absolute rulers of Europe at the time could not be compared. The liberty of the individual was very great, but had to yield to the will of the whole. All authority was vested in the General Assembly of all the Zaporozhians, and their decisions were enforced by elective officers who were, at the same time, officers of the army. The Zaporozhian warrior state, compared by some to a religious order of knights (because of their compulsory celibacy and their wars against unbelievers), by others to a communistic republic, shows us most clearly what has always been the goal of the Ukrainian "political idea." In the Zaporozhian organization, absolute equality of all citizens in all political and social rights prevailed above all else. In the 16th Century there arose among these Ukrainian Cossacks a military state organization, the center of which was a strongly fortified position below the rapids of the Dnieper (the Zaporozhian Sich). These armed farmers, hunters and fishermen led an independent life and called themselves Cossacks, i. The constant state of warfare on the Tatar border forced the Ukrainian population in those parts to adopt a policy of continual "Preparedness." These fighting people of the marshes led a precarious life, but they had access to the virgin lands of the borders with all their natural treasures, and the exploiting Polish officials did not dare venture forth into these dangerous districts.